The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System Essay Example For Students

The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System Essay INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper is the human immunodeficiency virus, HIV, and whether or not mutations undergone by the virus allow it to survive in the immune system. The cost of treating all persons with AIDS in 1993 in the United States was $7.8 billion, and it is estimated that 20,000 new cases of AIDS are reported every 3 months to the CDC. This question dealing with how HIV survives in the immune system is of critical importance, not only in the search for a cure for the virus and its inevitable syndrome, AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), but also so that over 500,000 Americans already infected with the virus could be saved. This is possible because if we know that HIV survives through mutations then we might be able to come up with a type of drug to retard these mutations allowing the immune system time to expunge it before the onset of AIDS. We will write a custom essay on The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now BACKGROUND In order to be able to fully comprehend and analyze this question we must first ascertain what HIV is, how the body attempts to counter the effects of viruses in general, and how HIV infects the body. Definition HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. HIV is classified as a RNA Retrovirus. A retrovirus uses RNA templates to produce DNA. For example, within the core of HIV is a double molecule of ribonucleic acid, RNA. When the virus invades a cell, this genetic material is replicated in the form of DNA . But, in order to do so, HIV must first be able to produce a particular enzyme that can construct a DNA molecule using an RNA template. This enzyme, called RNA-directed DNA polymerase, is also referred to as reverse transcriptase because it reverses the normal cellular process of transcription. The DNA molecules produced by reverse transcription are then inserted into the genetic material of the host cell, where they are co-replicated with the hosts chromosomes; they are thereby distributed to all daughter cells during subsequent cell divisions. Then in one or more of these daughter cells, the virus produces RNA copies of its genetic material. These new HIV clones become covered with protein coats and leave the cell to find other host cells where they can repeat the life cycle. The Body Fights Back As viruses begin to invade the body, a few are consumed by macrophages, which seize their antigens and display them on their own surfaces. Among millions of helper T cells circulating in the bloodstream, a select few are programmed to read that antigen. Binding the macrophage, the T cell becomes activated. Once activated, helper T cells begin to multiply. They then stimulate the multiplication of those few killer T cells and B cells that are sensitive to the invading viruses. As the number of B cells increases, helper T cells signal them to start producing antibodies. Meanwhile, some of the viruses have entered cells of the body the only place they are able to replicate. Killer T cells will sacrifice these cells by chemically puncturing their membranes, letting the contents spill out, thus disrupting the viral replication cycle. Antibodies then neutralize the viruses by binding directly to their surfaces, preventing them from attacking other cells. Additionally, they precipitate chemical reactions that actually destroy the infected cells. As the infection is contained, suppresser T cells halt the entire range of immune responses, preventing them from spiraling out of control. Memory T and B cells are left in the blood and lymphatic system, ready to move quickly should the same virus once again invade the body. HIVs Life Cycle In the initial stage of HIV infection, the virus colonizes helper T cells, specifically CD4+ cells, and macrophages, while replicating itself relatively unnoticed. .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c , .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c .postImageUrl , .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c , .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c:hover , .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c:visited , .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c:active { border:0!important; } .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c:active , .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u38db47f5f00574bc9f1453c4c2eec17c:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Ethical Hackers Essay As the amount of the virus soars, the number of helper cells falls; macrophages die as well. The infected T cells perish as thousands of new viral particles erupt from the cell membrane. Soon, though, cytotoxic T and B lymphocytes kill many virus-infected cells and viral particles. These effects limit viral growth and allow the body an opportunity to temporarily restore its supply of helper cells to almost normal concentrations. It is at this time the virus enters its second stage. Throughout this second phase the immune system functions well, and the net concentration of measurable virus remains relatively low. But after a period of time, the viral level rises gradually, in parallel with a decline in the helper population. These helper T and B . The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System Essay Example For Students The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System Essay INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper is the human immunodeficiency virus, HIV, and whether or not mutations undergone by the virus allow it to survive in the immune system. The cost of treating all persons with AIDS in 1993 in the United States was $7.8 billion, and it is estimated that 20,000 new cases of AIDS are reported every 3 months to the CDC. This question dealing with how HIV survives in the immune system is of critical importance, not only in the search for a cure for the virus and its inevitable syndrome, AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), but also so that over 500,000 Americans already infected with the virus could be saved. This is possible because if we know that HIV survives through mutations then we might be able to come up with a type of drug to retard these mutations allowing the immune system time to expunge it before the onset of AIDS. We will write a custom essay on The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now BACKGROUND In order to be able to fully comprehend and analyze this question we must first ascertain what HIV is, how the body attempts to counter the effects of viruses in general, and how HIV infects the body. Definition HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. HIV is classified as a RNA Retrovirus. A retrovirus uses RNA templates to produce DNA. For example, within the core of HIV is a double molecule of ribonucleic acid, RNA. When the virus invades a cell, this genetic material is replicated in the form of DNA . But, in order to do so, HIV must first be able to produce a particular enzyme that can construct a DNA molecule using an RNA template. This enzyme, called RNA-directed DNA polymerase, is also referred to as reverse transcriptase because it reverses the normal cellular process of transcription. The DNA molecules produced by reverse transcription are then inserted into the genetic material of the host cell, where they are co-replicated with the hosts chromosomes; they are thereby distributed to all daughter cells during subsequent cell divisions. Then in one or more of these daughter cells, the virus produces RNA copies of its genetic material. These new HIV clones become covered with protein coats and leave the cell to find other host cells where they can repeat the life cycle. The Body Fights Back As viruses begin to invade the body, a few are consumed by macrophages, which seize their antigens and display them on their own surfaces. Among millions of helper T cells circulating in the bloodstream, a select few are programmed to read that antigen. Binding the macrophage, the T cell becomes activated. Once activated, helper T cells begin to multiply. They then stimulate the multiplication of those few killer T cells and B cells that are sensitive to the invading viruses. As the number of B cells increases, helper T cells signal them to start producing antibodies. Meanwhile, some of the viruses have entered cells of the body the only place they are able to replicate. Killer T cells will sacrifice these cells by chemically puncturing their membranes, letting the contents spill out, thus disrupting the viral replication cycle. Antibodies then neutralize the viruses by binding directly to their surfaces, preventing them from attacking other cells. Additionally, they precipitate chemical reactions that actually destroy the infected cells. As the infection is contained, suppresser T cells halt the entire range of immune responses, preventing them from spiraling out of control. Memory T and B cells are left in the blood and lymphatic system, ready to move quickly should the same virus once again invade the body. HIVs Life Cycle In the initial stage of HIV infection, the virus colonizes helper T cells, specifically CD4+ cells, and macrophages, while replicating itself relatively unnoticed. .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9 , .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9 .postImageUrl , .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9 , .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9:hover , .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9:visited , .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9:active { border:0!important; } .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9:active , .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9 .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u1784bd8f62e36d002e3ece86cd1528f9:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Civil Rights Movement Essay As the amount of the virus soars, the number of helper cells falls; macrophages die as well. The infected T cells perish as thousands of new viral particles erupt from the cell membrane. Soon, though, cytotoxic T and B lymphocytes kill many virus-infected cells and viral particles. These effects limit viral growth and allow the body an opportunity to temporarily restore its supply of helper cells to almost normal concentrations. It is at this time the virus enters its second stage. Throughout this second phase the immune system functions well, and the net concentration of measurable virus remains relatively low. But after a period of time, the viral level rises gradually, in parallel with a decline in the helper population. These helper T and B . The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System Essay Example For Students The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System Essay INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper is the human immunodeficiency virus, HIV, and whether or not mutations undergone by the virus allow it to survive in the immune system. The cost of treating all persons with AIDS in 1993 in the United States was $7.8 billion, and it is estimated that 20,000 new cases of AIDS are reported every 3 months to the CDC. This question dealing with how HIV survives in the immune system is of critical importance, not only in the search for a cure for the virus and its inevitable syndrome, AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), but also so that over 500,000 Americans already infected with the virus could be saved. This is possible because if we know that HIV survives through mutations then we might be able to come up with a type of drug to retard these mutations allowing the immune system time to expunge it before the onset of AIDS. We will write a custom essay on The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now BACKGROUND In order to be able to fully comprehend and analyze this question we must first ascertain what HIV is, how the body attempts to counter the effects of viruses in general, and how HIV infects the body. Definition HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. HIV is classified as a RNA Retrovirus. A retrovirus uses RNA templates to produce DNA. For example, within the core of HIV is a double molecule of ribonucleic acid, RNA. When the virus invades a cell, this genetic material is replicated in the form of DNA . But, in order to do so, HIV must first be able to produce a particular enzyme that can construct a DNA molecule using an RNA template. This enzyme, called RNA-directed DNA polymerase, is also referred to as reverse transcriptase because it reverses the normal cellular process of transcription. The DNA molecules produced by reverse transcription are then inserted into the genetic material of the host cell, where they are co-replicated with the hosts chromosomes; they are thereby distributed to all daughter cells during subsequent cell divisions. Then in one or more of these daughter cells, the virus produces RNA copies of its genetic material. These new HIV clones become covered with protein coats and leave the cell to find other host cells where they can repeat the life cycle. The Body Fights Back As viruses begin to invade the body, a few are consumed by macrophages, which seize their antigens and display them on their own surfaces. Among millions of helper T cells circulating in the bloodstream, a select few are programmed to read that antigen. Binding the macrophage, the T cell becomes activated. Once activated, helper T cells begin to multiply. They then stimulate the multiplication of those few killer T cells and B cells that are sensitive to the invading viruses. As the number of B cells increases, helper T cells signal them to start producing antibodies. Meanwhile, some of the viruses have entered cells of the body the only place they are able to replicate. Killer T cells will sacrifice these cells by chemically puncturing their membranes, letting the contents spill out, thus disrupting the viral replication cycle. Antibodies then neutralize the viruses by binding directly to their surfaces, preventing them from attacking other cells. Additionally, they precipitate chemical reactions that actually destroy the infected cells. As the infection is contained, suppresser T cells halt the entire range of immune responses, preventing them from spiraling out of control. Memory T and B cells are left in the blood and lymphatic system, ready to move quickly should the same virus once again invade the body. HIVs Life Cycle In the initial stage of HIV infection, the virus colonizes helper T cells, specifically CD4+ cells, and macrophages, while replicating itself relatively unnoticed. .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29 , .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29 .postImageUrl , .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29 , .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29:hover , .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29:visited , .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29:active { border:0!important; } .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29:active , .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29 .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .udacaaddb74868d06d5f759168fd8bd29:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Trials And Tribulations Of Charles Dickens ( His L Essay As the amount of the virus soars, the number of helper cells falls; macrophages die as well. The infected T cells perish as thousands of new viral particles erupt from the cell membrane. Soon, though, cytotoxic T and B lymphocytes kill many virus-infected cells and viral particles. These effects limit viral growth and allow the body an opportunity to temporarily restore its supply of helper cells to almost normal concentrations. It . The Effects of HIV Mutations on the Immune System Essay Example For Students The Effects of HIV Mutations on the Immune System Essay Science C.J. Stimson INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper is the human immunodeficiency virus, HIV, and whether or not mutations undergone by the virus allow it to survive in the immune system. The cost of treating all persons with AIDS in 1993 in the United States was $7.8 billion, and it is estimated that 20,000 new cases of AIDS are reported every 3 months to the CDC. This question dealing with how HIV survives in the immune system is of critical importance, not only in the search for a cure for the virus and its inevitable syndrome, AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), but also so that over 500,000 Americans already infected with the virus could be saved. This is possible because if we know that HIV survives through mutations then we might be able to come up with a type of drug to retard these mutations allowing the immune system time to expunge it before the onset of AIDS. BACKGROUND In order to be able to fully comprehend and analyze this question we must first ascertain what HIV is, how the body attempts to counter the effects of viruses in general, and how HIV infects the body. Definition HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. HIV is classified as a RNA Retrovirus. A retrovirus uses RNA templates to produce DNA. We will write a custom essay on The Effects of HIV Mutations on the Immune System specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now For example, within the core of HIV is a double molecule of ribonucleic acid, RNA. When the virus invades a cell, this genetic material is replicated in the form of DNA . But, in order to do so, HIV must first be able to produce a particular enzyme that can construct a DNA molecule using an RNA template. This enzyme, called RNA-directed DNA polymerase, is also referred to as reverse transcriptase because it reverses the normal cellular process of transcription. The DNA molecules produced by reverse transcription are then inserted into the genetic material of the host cell, where they are co-replicated with the hosts chromosomes; they are thereby distributed to all daughter cells during subsequent cell divisions. Then in one or more of these daughter cells, the virus produces RNA copies of its genetic material. These new HIV clones become covered with protein coats and leave the cell to find other host cells where they can repeat the life cycle. The Body Fights Back As viruses begin to invade the body, a few are consumed by macrophages, which seize their antigens and display them on their own surfaces. Among millions of helper T cells circulating in the bloodstream, a select few are programmed to read that antigen. Binding the macrophage, the T cell becomes activated. Once activated, helper T cells begin to multiply. They then stimulate the multiplication of those few killer T cells and B cells that are sensitive to the invading viruses. As the number of B cells increases, helper T cells signal them to start producing antibodies. Meanwhile, some of the viruses have entered cells of the body the only place they are able to replicate. Killer T cells will sacrifice these cells by chemically puncturing their membranes, letting the contents spill out, thus disrupting the viral replication cycle. Antibodies then neutralize the viruses by binding directly to their surfaces, preventing them from attacking other cells. Additionally, they precipitate chemical reactions that actually destroy the infected cells. As the infection is contained, suppresser T cells halt the entire range of immune responses, preventing them from spiraling out of control. Memory T and B cells are left in the blood and lymphatic system, ready to move quickly should the same virus once again invade the body. HIVs Life Cycle In the initial stage of HIV infection, the virus colonizes helper T cells, specifically CD4+ cells, and macrophages, while replicating itself relatively unnoticed. As the amount of the virus soars, the number of helper cells falls; macrophages die as well. The infected T cells perish as thousands of new viral particles erupt from the cell membrane. Soon, though, cytotoxic T and B lymphocytes kill many virus-infected cells and viral particles. These effects limit viral growth and allow the body an opportunity to temporarily restore its supply of helper cells to . The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System Essay Example For Students The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System Essay INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper is the human immunodeficiency virus, HIV, and whether or not mutations undergone by the virus allow it to survive in the immune system. The cost of treating all persons with AIDS in 1993 in the United States was $7.8 billion, and it is estimated that 20,000 new cases of AIDS are reported every 3 months to the CDC. This question dealing with how HIV survives in the immune system is of critical importance, not only in the search for a cure for the virus and its inevitable syndrome, AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), but also so that over 500,000 Americans already infected with the virus could be saved. This is possible because if we know that HIV survives through mutations then we might be able to come up with a type of drug to retard these mutations allowing the immune system time to expunge it before the onset of AIDS. We will write a custom essay on The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now BACKGROUND In order to be able to fully comprehend and analyze this question we must first ascertain what HIV is, how the body attempts to counter the effects of viruses in general, and how HIV infects the body. Definition HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. HIV is classified as a RNA Retrovirus. A retrovirus uses RNA templates to produce DNA. For example, within the core of HIV is a double molecule of ribonucleic acid, RNA. When the virus invades a cell, this genetic material is replicated in the form of DNA . But, in order to do so, HIV must first be able to produce a particular enzyme that can construct a DNA molecule using an RNA template. This enzyme, called RNA-directed DNA polymerase, is also referred to as reverse transcriptase because it reverses the normal cellular process of transcription. The DNA molecules produced by reverse transcription are then inserted into the genetic material of the host cell, where they are co-replicated with the hosts chromosomes; they are thereby distributed to all daughter cells during subsequent cell divisions. Then in one or more of these daughter cells, the virus produces RNA copies of its genetic material. These new HIV clones become covered with protein coats and leave the cell to find other host cells where they can repeat the life cycle. The Body Fights Back As viruses begin to invade the body, a few are consumed by macrophages, which seize their antigens and display them on their own surfaces. Among millions of helper T cells circulating in the bloodstream, a select few are programmed to read that antigen. Binding the macrophage, the T cell becomes activated. Once activated, helper T cells begin to multiply. They then stimulate the multiplication of those few killer T cells and B cells that are sensitive to the invading viruses. As the number of B cells increases, helper T cells signal them to start producing antibodies. Meanwhile, some of the viruses have entered cells of the body the only place they are able to replicate. Killer T cells will sacrifice these cells by chemically puncturing their membranes, letting the contents spill out, thus disrupting the viral replication cycle. Antibodies then neutralize the viruses by binding directly to their surfaces, preventing them from attacking other cells. Additionally, they precipitate chemical reactions that actually destroy the infected cells. As the infection is contained, suppresser T cells halt the entire range of immune responses, preventing them from spiraling out of control. Memory T and B cells are left in the blood and lymphatic system, ready to move quickly should the same virus once again invade the body. HIVs Life Cycle In the initial stage of HIV infection, the virus colonizes helper T cells, specifically CD4+ cells, and macrophages, while replicating itself relatively unnoticed. .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b , .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b .postImageUrl , .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b , .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b:hover , .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b:visited , .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b:active { border:0!important; } .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b:active , .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u3d0cca5b57aba049692fb4850ab2a85b:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Analysis Of The Movie ' The Pursuit Of Happiness ' Essay As the amount of the virus soars, the number of helper cells falls; macrophages die as well. The infected T cells perish as thousands of new viral particles erupt from the cell membrane. Soon, though, cytotoxic T and B lymphocytes kill many virus-infected cells and viral particles. These effects limit viral growth and allow the body an opportunity to temporarily restore its supply of helper cells to almost normal concentrations. It is at this time the virus enters its second stage. Throughout this second phase the immune system functions well, and the net concentration of measurable virus remains relatively low. But after a period of time, the viral level rises gradually, in parallel with a decline in the helper population. These helper T and B lymphocytes are not lost because the bodys ability to produce new helper . The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System Essay Example For Students The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System Essay INTRODUCTION The topic of this paper is the human immunodeficiency virus, HIV, and whether or not mutations undergone by the virus allow it to survive in the immune system. The cost of treating all persons with AIDS in 1993 in the United States was $7.8 billion, and it is estimated that 20,000 new cases of AIDS are reported every 3 months to the CDC. This question dealing with how HIV survives in the immune system is of critical importance, not only in the search for a cure for the virus and its inevitable syndrome, AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome), but also so that over 500,000 Americans already infected with the virus could be saved. This is possible because if we know that HIV survives through mutations then we might be able to come up with a type of drug to retard these mutations allowing the immune system time to expunge it before the onset of AIDS. We will write a custom essay on The Effects Of HIV Mutations On The Immune System specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now BACKGROUND In order to be able to fully comprehend and analyze this question we must first ascertain what HIV is, how the body attempts to counter the effects of viruses in general, and how HIV infects the body. Definition HIV is the virus that causes AIDS. HIV is classified as a RNA Retrovirus. A retrovirus uses RNA templates to produce DNA. For example, within the core of HIV is a double molecule of ribonucleic acid, RNA. When the virus invades a cell, this genetic material is replicated in the form of DNA . But, in order to do so, HIV must first be able to produce a particular enzyme that can construct a DNA molecule using an RNA template. This enzyme, called RNA-directed DNA polymerase, is also referred to as reverse transcriptase because it reverses the normal cellular process of transcription. The DNA molecules produced by reverse transcription are then inserted into the genetic material of the host cell, where they are co-replicated with the hosts chromosomes; they are thereby distributed to all daughter cells during subsequent cell divisions. Then in one or more of these daughter cells, the virus produces RNA copies of its genetic material. These new HIV clones become covered with protein coats and leave the cell to find other host cells where they can repeat the life cycle. The Body Fights Back As viruses begin to invade the body, a few are consumed by macrophages, which seize their antigens and display them on their own surfaces. Among millions of helper T cells circulating in the bloodstream, a select few are programmed to ;read; that antigen. Binding the macrophage, the T cell becomes activated. Once activated, helper T cells begin to multiply. They then stimulate the multiplication of those few killer T cells and B cells that are sensitive to the invading viruses. As the number of B cells increases, helper T cells signal them to start producing antibodies. Meanwhile, some of the viruses have entered cells of the body the only place they are able to replicate. Killer T cells will sacrifice these cells by chemically puncturing their membranes, letting the contents spill out, thus disrupting the viral replication cycle. Antibodies then neutralize the viruses by binding directly to their surfaces, preventing them from attacking other cells. Additionally, they precipitate chemical reactions that actually destroy the infected cells. As the infection is contained, suppresser T cells halt the entire range of immune responses, preventing them from spiraling out of control. Memory T and B cells are left in the blood and lymphatic system, ready to move quickly should the same virus once again invade the body. HIVs Life Cycle In the initial stage of HIV infection, the virus colonizes helper T cells, specifically CD4+ cells, and macrophages, while replicating itself relatively unnoticed. .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41 , .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41 .postImageUrl , .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41 , .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41:hover , .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41:visited , .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41:active { border:0!important; } .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41:active , .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41 .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ue25a387c383de9caaf6794d5d146da41:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Cigarette Ad Essay As the amount of the virus soars, the number of helper cells falls; macrophages die as well. The infected T cells perish as thousands of new viral particles erupt from the cell membrane. Soon, though, cytotoxic T and B lymphocytes kill many virus-infected cells and viral particles. These effects limit viral growth and allow the body an opportunity to temporarily restore its supply of helper cells to almost normal concentrations. It .

Snowy Owl Facts

Snowy Owl Facts Snowy owls (Bubo scandiacus) are the heaviest owls in the United States. They are notable for their striking white plumage and their extreme northerly range which includes tundra habitat throughout Alaska, Canada, and Eurasia. While they are relatively rare, they are often spotted in winter when they hunt in windswept fields or dunes. Fast Facts: Snowy Owl Scientific Name: Bubo scandiacusCommon Names: Arctic owls, great white owls, white owls, Harfangs, American snowy owls, snowy owls, ghost owls, tundra ghosts, ookpiks, ermine owls, Scandinavian nightbirds, and highland tundra owlsBasic Animal Group:  BirdSize: Body: 20 to 28 inches; wingspan: 4.2 to 4.8 feetWeight: 3.5–6.5 poundsLifespan: 10 yearsDiet:  CarnivoreHabitat:  Northern United States, parts of Canada; migration takes them to parts of Europe and AsiaPopulation:  200,000Conservation  Status:  Vulnerable   Description The plumage of an adult male snowy owl is mostly white with few dark markings. Females and young owls have a sprinkling of darker feathers that form spots or bars over their wings, breast, upper parts and the back of their head. This speckling offers superb camouflage and enables juveniles and females to blend well with the summertime colors and textures of the tundras vegetation. During the nesting season, females are often are heavily soiled on their underside from sitting on the nest. Snowy owls have bright yellow eyes and a black bill. Vicki Jauron, Babylon and Beyond Photography / Getty Images Habitat and Distribution Snowy owls range from the western Aleutians in Alaska to northeastern Manitoba, northern Quebec, Labrador, and the northern United States. They are primarily tundra birds although they sometimes also inhabit grasslands. They venture into forests only on very rare occasions, if ever. During the winter, snowy owls often move southward. During their migration, they are sometimes seen along coastlines and lake shores. They sometimes stop at airports, possibly because they offer them the wide-open habitat they prefer. During the breeding season, which snowy owls spend in the Arctic, they nest on small rises in the tundra where the female carves out a scrape or shallow depression in the ground in which to lay her eggs. Snowy owls rely on prey populations that fluctuate significantly over time. As a result, snowy owls are nomadic birds and go wherever there are ample food resources at any particular time. During normal years, snowy owls remain in the northernmost parts of Alaska, Canada, and Eurasia. But in seasons when prey is not abundant in the northern stretches of their range, snowy owls move further southward. Occasionally, snowy owls move to regions that are farther south than their normal range. For example, during the years of 1945 through 1946, snow owls made a widespread, coast-to-coast incursion into the southern stretches of Canada and the northern parts of the United States. Then in 1966 and 1967, snowy owls moved deeply into the Pacific Northwest region. These incursions have coincided with cyclic declines in the lemming population. Diet During the breeding season, snowy owls survive on a diet that consists of lemmings and voles. In parts of their range where lemmings and voles are absent, such as the Shetland Islands, snowy owls feed on rabbits or chicks of wading birds. Behavior Unlike most owls, snowy owls are primarily diurnal birds, usually active during the day, from dawn to dusk. Sometimes snowy owls do hunt at night. It is important to remember that within their Arctic range, snowy owls experience long summer days and hunting at night simply isnt an option as there are few or no hours of darkness. The opposite is true in winter when day length shortens and hunting during daylight hours is reduced or eliminated as the sun remains below the horizon for long stretches of time. Outside the breeding season, snowy owls make very few vocalizations. During the breeding season, snowy owls are a bit more vocal. Males make a barking kre or krek-krek call. Females produce a loud whistling or mewling pyee-pyee or prek-prek sound. Snowy owls also produce a low-pitched hoot that carries through the air for long distances and can be heard as much as 10 kilometers away. Other sounds snowy owls make include hissing, bill snapping and a clapping sound believed to be created by clicking the tongue. Reproduction and Offspring Normally, snowy owls lay between five and eight eggs per clutch. But in good years when prey such as lemmings is abundant, they lay as many as 14 eggs per clutch. Female snowy owls lay their 2.2 inch long eggs at two-day intervals so that the young emerge from the egg at different times. Mud-brown hatchlings emerge from their eggs at about the size of a newly-hatched chicken. Hatchlings in the same nest are of differing ages, with some having hatched as much as two weeks apart. Snowy owl chicks weigh only about 45 grams at birth, but they grow rapidly, gaining about three grams each day. They mature over the course of two years, at which point they weigh approximately 4.5 pounds. Javier Piva Flos/Getty Images   Conservation Status There are approximately 200,000 snowy owls in North America. Despite conservation efforts, these unique owls are now considered to be a vulnerable species. While breeding areas are usually far away from human interference, climate change is impacting the snowy owls Arctic habitat; the number of these birds is on the decline. Relatives of the Horned Owl Until recently, snowy owls were the only member of the genus Nyctea but recent molecular studies showed snowy owls to be close relatives of the horned owls. As a result, taxonomists have moved snowy owls to the genus Bubo. Other members of the genus Bubo include the American horned owls and the Old World eagle-owls. Like other horned owls, snowy owls have ear tufts but they are small and usually kept tucked away. Sources â€Å"Basic Facts About Snowy Owls.†Ã‚  Defenders of Wildlife, 10 Jan. 2019, defenders.org/snowy-owl/basic-facts.â€Å"Snowy Owl.†Ã‚  Audubon, 21 Mar. 2019, www.audubon.org/field-guide/bird/snowy-owl.â€Å"Snowy Owl.†Ã‚  National Geographic, 24 Sept. 2018, www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/s/snowy-owl/.

Audit Planning Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Audit Planning - Coursework Example For the success of the planning process, an auditor has to observe several steps. They include risk assessment, conducting a survey, planning meeting and definition of scope and objectives of the audit. Risk assessment is purposed to determine the risks involved in the planned audit. These risks if any can be evaluated to determine their levels and whether or not to be included in the current review. It also helps in deciding the extent of involvement of professionals with the specialised skills during the review process. In most occasions, these assessments are discussed with the firm’s department to get their perspective on the risks identified and their views. A preliminary survey is conducted to allow an auditor get an overall understanding of the various departments within an organization and their operations. This helps in planning on time and resource allocation to the different audit areas. It also helps in identification of the direction, management and supervision of resources. This stage also enables auditors to design the strategy of the audit process for effective exercise and on time management. After completion of the survey, a meeting with the organization’s heads is usually convened. This usually is carried out to discuss the strategies for the audit, and ensure that the information gathered during the survey is accurate and reviewing the level of risk assessed. Discussion of the audit scope and objectives is done at this stage. Documentation of the overall audit strategy and plan is compiled, and then the review process is then rolled to the firm. An effective audit process can be executed if there exists a clear understanding of the client’s business operations. It is usually a challenge for many auditors to perform their operations without having knowledge of their client’s business. It is a requirement in the International Standards on Auditing for the auditor to have knowledge about the company and its

Country Analysis Paper on Norway Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Country Analysis Paper on Norway - Essay Example Good economic performances continue support to areas losing residents in Norway. The Nordic model follows both justice and aggressive apprehensions. Maintaining the main features of the settlement pattern is an eternal objective of the nation. Policies mainly target thinly populated areas, with stress on service delivery and competitiveness. Measures are based on employment oriented economic methods and service delivery balancing. Diagnosis of regional competitiveness advantages could improve the design of policy tools. Regional innovation and competitiveness policies involve a lot of aspects. The role of major urban areas in knowledge production and circulation should be better considered. Recent emphasis on city attractiveness and competitiveness, particularly in Oslo, create the basis for an open city policy. The role of small and medium sized cities needs to be better incorporated into regional innovation strategies. Place-based policy approaches can enhance the impact of regiona l competitiveness and innovation policies. Depopulation and ageing in more than half of Norwegian municipalities affect the cost of services. Population decline produces apprehensions about school closures and staffing problems.

Historians Can't Speculate Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Historians Can't Speculate - Essay Example Yet when the historical records of an event such as American slavery tend to be biased towards the view of it as just another type of economic enterprise, there is clear value in what might be termed memory or the an attempt to explore what actually occurred using the human imagination as a spur rather than 'actual' historical records. Beloved is a prime example of such an attempt. Historians are concerned with events which can be assigned to specific time-space locations, events which are (or were) in principle observable or perceivable, whereas imaginary writers . . . are concerned with both these kinds of events and imagined, hypothetical, or invented ones. It is interesting to note that White's definition provides for an area of coincidence between the work of the historian and the work of the imaginary writer (such as Morrison, who is a novelist) by suggesting that novelists deal with historical events as well as historians, although they may also include the fictional elements that the historian supposedly does not. As White suggests, it was after the Enlightenment and the French Revolution that history and literature started to part company. By the early 1800's "it became conventional, at least among historians, to identify truth with fact and to regard fiction as the opposite of the truth" (White, p.123) (emphasis added). This might seem almost childishly simplistic to many scholars today, but it can be related to the supposed triumph of the 'rational', often in the form of Science, over the irrational. The word science means "to know" (from the Latin scio, to know) and the only thing that can be "known" is a fact. Fiction was thus "a hindrance to the understanding of reality rather than as a way of apprehending it"(White, p.123). History was thus placed within a hierarchy that placed it indelibly above, and thus superior, to that of mere fiction. Many historians of this era did not seem to consider the fact that the histories which they were writing depended a lot upon which facts were being considered, and that this just as much choice and imagination went into writing them as in fiction. History dealt with facts, and thus the truth, while fiction dealt with non-facts, and thus lies. It was only during the Twentieth Century that history and fiction started their long journey back towards one another. In the Nineteenth Century historians did not realize that which seems self-evident today: "facts do not speak for themselves, but that the historian speaks for them, speaks on their behalf, and fashions the fragments of the past into a whole whose whole integrity is - in its representation - a purely discursive one" (White, p.125). It is this "fashioning" which makes history resemble the process a fictional writer goes through when she is creating a world of characters. The historian takes a historical event, for example, the Fall of the Bastille, and gives meaning to it by creating a kaleidoscope through which the event can be seen. The fact that the Bastille fell cannot be disputed; what that falling means can be. Both history and fiction deal with meaning, and thus can be regarded as different techniques with the same end in mind.  Ã‚  

How Off Site Construction Construction Essay

How Off Site Construction Construction Essay This dissertation will discuss the effect of Modern Methods of Construction (MMC) and particularly the Off-Site Construction (OSC), on the building sector today, and how these methods will contribute to help and resolve social, financial, and environmental difficulties that facing the UK. Off-site construction is an application of modern methods of construction MMC where building sector meets the industrial sector, or by other word, a fusion between building and manufacturing. Off-site construction is where any of building components, or even a whole building, manufactured in factories away from the actual site where the building will be sited, or simply is where the construction site is different from the building site. Off-site construction has different terms, terms like (prefabrication, off-site assembly, factory assembly, pre-assembly, off-site manufacture, etc.). The term off-site construction is generally used nowadays to any part of the construction process that takes place in factories. Off-site construction is not new, in the 20th century specifically in the post wartime, off-site construction (that time the term used probably was factory assembly or prefabrication construction) were needed to replace rapidly buildings which were destroyed or damaged during the war, But due to the lack of technology and modern production techniques, development in lightweights, high-strength materials, and new modern methods of construction that today is available, it gained unfortunately negative significance. The time of the wheelbarrow is finished, announced Jean Prouvà © in 1947, echoing Le Corbusier.We need usinà ©es maisons, homes produced in the factories Since then, a further sixty years have passed: the manufacturing industry has come with story of success of the mechanization, has enhanced electronics and grafting. Today industrial automation and manufactures from shoes to personal computers, and from planes to crackers, all now machine-made, in Seattle as a small village in China. The building construction is still the same. With very few exceptions, the building remains largely an object made by hand with traditional techniques. And the only construction industry still relies to logical and largely pre-industrial processes. With known effects: low productivity, forecast time and cost much more random, exposed to all levels of quality and possibilities and approximations of production conditions are vary widely, backward technologies and unskilled work. Why choose off-site construction now? What is so different from the traditional way of construction? Why is sustainability constantly being brought up? Before I examine these points, I have to mention some important facts that have already occurred. Since the beginning of the century, it is increasingly being talked about and discussed, the world and its climate changing. United Nations ask for action on it. The world met in a summit in Copenhagen to discuss how they can resolve the raising temperature that might cause damages and risks to the global, and how to reduce energy and CO2 emission. Why I mentioned climate change and we are talking about off-site construction? The answer is surprisingly, buildings are responsible for about one third of global energy consumption and if we add the energy used for construction the amount can easily be increased to the half. All of this means that we need to build very efficient houses and in an efficient way, and thats can be achievable only by off-site construction. There is a severe accommodation shortage in the UK. The Government has announced plans for the construction of 200,000 new houses per year, but that target has never achieved yet. Off-site construction can help the accommodation industry to achieve that target where fast delivery is needed. Speedier delivery in construction is one of the potential advantages of off-site construction and research showed that it can reduce the time of construction process to the half because it takes place in a desirable condition away from the unpredictable weather that can affect and delay the process on-site. And research showed that it can reduce the time of construction process to the half because it takes place in a desirable condition away from the unpredictable weather, factory built accommodation. Offsite construction already features in the production of social accommodation.elderly.jpg Skill shortages in the UK construction industry are a severe problem. In 2001 the UK construction industry estimated it needed to train an extra 74,000 skilled workers every year for five years just to make up for the shortages of bricklayers, plumbers and electricians (Verbus System, 2006). In 2009, the chartered institute of building (CIOB) concluded a third research on skill shortages, and the result again showed that the construction industry is still suffering a skills shortage, which is likely to continue to be a challenge for the building sector. Off-site construction can play an important role to resolve this issue. The research showed, compared to more traditional techniques, off-site construction can reduce on-site labour requirements to less than a quarter. This result achieved from some work took place off-site. Off-site work involves different labour that is not under pressure as the on-site workforce. Off-site construction and modern methods of construction (MMC) can therefore make better use of scarce labour. 1.5 DISSERTATION STRUCTURE The dissertation consists of an introduction chapter, three main chapters and conclusion chapter; Chapter two discuss the advantages of off-site construction for the building sector, society, and the environment. The chapter also will discuss the conditions in order to gain the full advantages of off-site construction. Chapter three explain the types and forms of off-site construction, and where off-site construction takes place in the building and in the construction process. Off-site construction takes place in different areas of the building, so how off-site construction will incorporate with the mainstream construction process. Chapter four show and examine some of off-site construction case studies and in which type of building it takes place. CHAPTER TWO: ADVANTAGES OF OFF-SITE CONSTRUCTION 2.1 INTRODUCTION Off-site construction, as I mentioned, is part of modern methods of construction (MMC) and is referred to as any of the components of the building built in a high quality controlled factories where they use advanced techniques to manufacture highly specialised doors, windows, stairs, wall panels, frame structure, and complete volumetric pods and then transport them to the location where it will be used and to be assembled on-site. Off-site construction has many advantages that are why nowadays there are more companies and contractors using this method rather than the traditional way of construction, even governments make more pressure to use this method to speed up housing delivery. Modern methods of construction can provide good quality homes with less on-site labour, in a shorter time, with at least the same building performance and at similar cost when compared to more established techniques. Off-site manufacturing and partnering processes increasingly play a part in solving todays problem of moving towards a sustainable housing industry. The advantages of off-site construction can be classified into two types; Business advantages, social environmental advantages Modern construction methods can produce important benefits for housing authorities and developers, not the least of which is the reduced emphasis on on-site activity. This is particularly important in a time of increasing demands on an already stretched labour force. As with any new way of doing things there are risks, but these can be mitigated through good project planning and management (Sir John Bourn, head of the National Audit Office, 2005). 2.2 ADVANTAGES Less time in construction process, cost predictability, higher quality,helping the society and the environment, resolving skilled labour shortage, reduce health safety risks,and helping the business the economy. These are key advantages of off-site construction. 2.2.1 Reduced construction time Business advantages give a huge encouragement to the contractors and designers to use more off-site construction components with their design and building processes. The greater speed of manufacturing and on-site assembling is an important factor for business gain. Earlier the delivery of the building means earlier the return of the investment. Modular construction for example, that is an off-site construction, is up to 40-60% quicker than traditional building methods. The predictability of the delivery also is very important for the financial calculation of the business in terms of cost and revenue. The manufacturing process of the components in quality controlled factories is nearly accurately estimated as well as the delivery to the site and the assembly operation. 2.2.2 Cost Predictability Cost-effectiveness is an important factor to show the difference between the off-site construction method and the conventional one. Approximately, around 80% of the construction costs are fixed within the first 20% of the design process. The graph below highlights the potential for cost reduction and alternatively the resistance to the cost of change during the project life. As the project progresses, the opportunities for implementing variation or change reduce and the consequent costs associated with these variations rise substantially, Where off-site production techniques are to be used, these should be introduced early in the process. While off-site construction has tended in the past to be more expensive than brick block, now is being reduced to the same level due to the innovation of more techniques and to the variety of the components, and these bringing even greater economies. 2.2.3 Superior Quality Off-site manufacture for building components significantly improves the quality and the efficiency of the building due to high standard of quality control and test. Buildings exceed requirements on sound and thermal insulation levels, so this means that are more sustainable. 2.2.4 Help the society and the environment Off-site construction has also can help the society and the environment. Millions of affordable homes are required to meet growing demand, and there is increasing pressure to further improve efficiency and sustainability performance during construction and throughout the lifetime of the buildings. Off-site construction is environmentally friendly if it is planned well from the early stages of design and by integrating all the supply chain together. Less energy is generally required to develop the modules or off-site manufactured components. With improved process control ,buildings are pre-engineered each exactly the same and so can be adapted for ease of tiling and this should lead to reduced levels of waste on site of up to 70% and subsequent costs. In addition, with improved control of materials flow, raw materials can be recycled rather than skipped as often happens on site. The advantage of using OSC methods related to the reduction of waste to landfill are that the material usage in the factory is reduced up to 90% by the  careful design and procurement of materials, reducing the  amount of waste generated  both on-site and off-site. Offsite manufacturing was identified as a key potential method for promoting sustainability within the construction industry. Sustainability is increased as sound and thermal insulation are improved. Reduced time on site means less disruption to neighbouring residents or businesses. 2.2.5Reducing reliance on skilled labour While there is a significant shortage of housing in the UK, and the government plans to build more accommodation houses, there is another problem facing to achieve these plans as well the building industry a whole which is the skills shortages bricklayers, plumbers and electricians. Off-site construction helps to build more houses by reducing reliance on increasingly scarce skilled labour by reducing the number of labour where semi-skilled factory labour can be used during the construction of modules. 2.2.6 Improve Health and safety Health and safety issue also give off-site construction an advantage, it has been proven to be a safer method of construction because there are fewer components involved than traditional methods and there is no need for high quantity of labour on-site for the assembly process. 2.2.7 Business integration and economy development Off-site construction helps to integrate the supply chain. When executed effectively, the off-site construction process involves key manufacturers and suppliers early in the feasibility and design stages of the project. This ensures that the specialist skills and knowledge of these key suppliers are embedded within the project and can influence the design and construction phases of the project. Where appropriate these key suppliers should be given ownership of the design and involved fully in the execution of delivery, storage and movements of materials and components. CHAPTER THREE: OFF-SITE CONSTRUCTION! WHERE IT TAKES PLACE? 3.1Forms of off-site construction Off-site construction can take a number of forms. The form and extent of acceptance within the projects will depend on:the type of project: Is there a large proportion of duplication or replication? for example; in hotels and hostels, the type of client: Is the client a one-off or repeat client?, and the relationships and the arrangements between the project members. Off-site buildings and components systems range from small bolt-together sections to virtually complete buildings. Systems can be categorised as: Sub-assemblies Frames Panels (open or closed) Volumetric system Hybrids system 3.1.1 Sub-assemblies Sub-assemblies are the most traditional and widely used system in off-site manufacturing which is being used for many generations. Thistype of off-site construction can include elements using different type of materials such as concrete beams, block floors, and foundations. Prefabricated foundation systems can consist of precast, post-tensioned, concrete beams. Prefabricated beam installation in progress on piles. The beams can be omittedand modular structures can be installed to span directly onto piles and pile caps Photograph courtesy of Van Elle An additional examples for sub- assemblies systems are the glass reinforced plastic for chimneys, steel for curtain walling, and timber stairs. 3.1.2 Frames Framed structures, which are pre-assembled in factories, supply the structural support to buildings and are not something new feature in construction. Lightweight pre-assembled frames which can be delivered promptly to the site, speeding up the construction times for the main structural elements. The benefit of pre-assembled framed structures, that can help of reducing site cutting and the inaccuracies that can arise from it.Untitled-1.jpg Insulated steel frame building system Photograph courtesy of Fusion An example of framed structure is the steel frame module. Steel works in off-site construction are taking the most important part of the factory controlled construction due to the characteristics of the steel itself that can be shaped and moulded in any form; the result is light strong steel modules structures. The UK construction market is one of the most steel intensive in the world, with steel proving to be the material of choice for UK architects and structural engineers in the multi-storey building market. The 2007 Market Shares Survey figures show steel construction consistently takes in excess of 70 per cent over double the market share compared to when the survey was first carried out in the early 1980s.(Housebuilder Developer. 2008). The Steel Construction Institute has carried out a study of different construction projects using various levels of off-site steel construction technologies in busy urban sites. The goal of the study was to recognize the benefits of off-site construction relating to the reduction of the disruption caused to local residents by the construction operations. The study also aimed to quantify these benefits in terms of the reduction in dust, noise, vehicle circulation and the impact of site-generated waste on the environment. 3.1.3 Panels Panels are two dimensional frame that consist both the structural and the infill element, are sealed together on site. Example of panels are pre-assembled floor, wall, and roof panels. Using the right sealants are very important to gain the benefit of off-site manufactured panels in order to stand up the frames rapidly. The simplest form of off-site manufactured panel system is lightweight infill panels that are fixed to the structural frame, where the most complex form are the prefabricated sandwich panels which consist of both, the structural element, internal and external finishes. 3.1.4 Volumetric System Volumetric system is the frame and panel systems, and when the building is assembled and built from a series of volumetric steel or timber modules, connected together to form a room or groups of rooms to form complete structure. Modular construction is also a term used to refer the volumetric assemblies. While the foundations are being prepared under factory conditions, the modules are manufactured and finished (or partially finished) off-site, under factory conditions, then transported to the building site and assembled and connected to the foundations, then added the exterior cladding and the roof. Modular construction is more sustainable than traditional techniques because of the minimum foundations that required and because it is built under factory conditions, the modules are in better quality and defects are minimized. Modular construction uses the same techniques from the industrial sector but the result does not look like mass production product. Sophisticated modules and panels can be produced and can be easily customised by the clients requirements, and with new advanced techniques finishes: cladding and roofing, give the building its natural skin that suites the surrounding. 3.1.5 Hybrids System Plant rooms Plant room is a room or space in a building dedicated to the mechanical and electrical equipments and then they need an intensive labour. If plant rooms built off-site where there is cheaper labour, this can be more economically. Other advantage of plant rooms built in factory is if a project in time difficulties, always the installation of the services is squeezed, so using modular plant rooms certainly will help to avoid this problem. Using system-engineering principles, the resulting prototype has been developed principally for use in the construction of two and seven storey residential developments. It is a hybrid of frame and infill panels, the prototype enables construction in stick form, panels or 3D volumetric units, and works on the principle of a frame and infill system. The mainframe is hot-rolled steel and typically uses regular or square hollow sections with a width of 100mm for both columns and beams to provide a standard interface that can be in filled with floor and non-load bearing wall panels to complete the building. The prototype is based on currently available main components, which can be connected in a variety of ways to suit the individual project to allow flexibility in the level of work carried out off-site. Connections include innovative bolt connections to allow complete demountability, location systems and welded connections, all of which can be used in isolation or as part of a combined system. Bathrooms Pods Bathroom construction process can use Off-site construction technology, which in compare to the traditional way, would normally be carried out on-site. If we remove the construction process of the bathrooms to a controlled factory environment, bathrooms will become more ecological, functional, and with lower building costs. Bathrooms that we call them smart will also become more common with highly environmentally toilets and showers systems and with more advanced technology like tapes with sensors. The quality of bathrooms pods is far superior to the traditional on-site construction, more stylish, with high quality materials, and better for the environment in terms of a lower carbon footprint, lower levels of waste and reduced transportation of components. Bathroom pods are a very economically solution when it integrate with the whole construction process in large quantities such as; student accommodations, hotels, hostels, hospitals, and prisons.3.jpg Walker Modular CHAPTER FOUR: CASE STUDIES 4.1 British Land Ropemaker site, London Ropemaker is a commercial building for British Land, one of the UKs largest Real Estate Investment Trust. It is built in an eminent site in London. The 21 storey and three basement levels has 55,000 square metres net lettable space. The high profile building has impressive green certifications achievement including a BREEAM excellent rating. The development has been realised using off-site construction technologies in a large number of parts in the building. This study aimed to evaluate two products manufactured off-site; a modular walling system Podwall from Swift Horseman, and Technik flooring system supplied by Grants LTD. The research aimed to compare in deep analysis off-site construction techniques products to the traditional way of construction in terms of; waste on-site and off-site, resources needed on site, efficiency and productivity, cost, environmental impact analysis and end of life assessment, health and safety, and installation time. Features of the Podwall system (Swift Horsman. 2010) A flexible modular walling system incorporating finishes and services. All elements manufactured off site in a controlled environment. Innovative fit out solution providing high quality female, male, and disabled toilet units throughout the development. PODWALL research results Performance breakdown (man hours on site) Podwall saved approximately 40% to programme. Each floor at Ropemaker had an 11 week programme to install the Podwall (3 blocks per floor one ladies, one gentlemen and one disabled toilet), which would be equivalent to 15 ½ weeks for traditional fit out. Podwall waste Because the Podwall is manufactured off-site the waste on site is reduced. The largest proportion of waste generated is in the packaging, which ensures the product is protected between factory and site. Across the Ropemaker site a total of approximately 213m3 of waste was produced for all Podwall washrooms. Given the low levels of waste observed during the monitoring of the Podwall, traditional waste would considerably exceed the Podwall waste volumes. The percentage of materials recycled from Ropemaker frequently exceeds 85%. At Ropemaker the Podwall washroom package has a value of approximately  £6m, with 54 toilet blocks being delivered across 1969m2 The main differences in cost between the Podwall and the traditional system are in services installation and cubicles. This is because services are integrated off site into the walls and cubicles for the Podwall which explains the greater cost of these elements, whereas with traditional build the cost of installing services on site is higher. The traditional costs do not account for indirect costs such as the increased cost of waste and removal thereof and the increased programme time to install the traditional product. 4.2 Case Study: Bewdley High School and Sixth Form, Worcestershire This case study involves a school and sixth form building based in Bewdley, Worcestershire. A new building which can meet the needs and expectations of this school is to be proposed, designed and implemented. The requirements are said to be a building which offers flexibility for the school and its occupiers as well as being a low-energy solution. The changing needs of the school means space needs to be provided to accommodate the new influx of around 360 pupils. Yorkon manufacturers, who are based in the city of York, have created a two-storey high building at their off-site location. Due to the nature of the build taking place away at York as an off-site project, the building only took a mere 22 weeks to put together compared to an on-site project which would take longer. This new building has become a project now boasting a title as not only one of the most sustainable modular buildings within the UK, but offers heating via biomass fuel and holds a complex passive and low energy ventilation system. The building comprises of 60 steel-framed modules and has clear internal spans measuring up to 12m for space planning flexibility within. The parts were brought in using cranes and windows and partitions were put into place. The effectiveness of pre-installing the windows and partitions off-site show the efficiency and speed of this new phenomenon. It is a desired and sought after concept to still incorporate off-site construction into the regular and more traditional building techniques. The fact the building has integrated off-site technology into its production whilst still being themed around a conventional and traditional design for a drama and dance studio, ultimately shows the two somewhat diverse approaches to construction working in harmony together. The building comprises a 12 classroom facility which may accommodate the schools Modern Languages, Humanities as well as English Departments. Furthermore, a designated creative-area is also catered for within the design concept as well as an area for an administrative centre. Its design features boast central-heating fuelled by biomass fuel thus being environmentally friendly by minimising harmful carbon emissions. Not only this, but the new building can offer all timber cladding from sources that are confirmed sustainable, a highly-glazed activity studio offering a plentiful amount of natural light and an appealing bespoke roof structure thats pleasing to the eye. Looking further into the buildings design concept in offering a complex passive ventilation system, we can see that the clever idea of well-ventilated rooms provide a more comforting area for study and teaching. This additional air-flow is thus providing better concentration and performance for all those working within the new building. This is achieved through something recognised as passive air-stacking. The sensors installed are there to monitor levels of both carbon dioxide as well as temperature. This enables fresher air to be drawn in accordingly when detected as too low. This is fed diagonally over radiators which prevent the possibility of unwelcome cold draughts. Any stale air from the room is passed out from the room via high capacity discharge terminals found on the roof. This ultimately creates a continuous regulation of new air flow replacing older air providing optimum air composition levels in each room. Professionals working at Yorkon have expressed their views in using off-site construction in this project amongst others. They voiced that the main decision to go for off-site production was speed in completing the project which was highly important in making sure the facility would be ready on time for the new quantity of pupils to be joining the school. Furthermore, Yorkon is keen to be recognised as a reputable name in supplying superior quality along with an eye for sophisticated and precise detail in the designs and bringing revolutionary new techniques to building which can change attitudes towards regular modular construction. This is all despite any challenging timescale. Yorkonis adamant their team has provided the required building which can boast quality, bespoke elements and flexibility along with highly favoured low energy, environmentally friendly and speedy results. (The new building has provided us with spacious accommodation and room sizes that are appropriate for our learning and teaching needs. It is visually pleasing from the outside and fits in well with the locality. Our students have been impressed with the design of the building and it has helped to develop a strong sense of pride in our school and working environment. The modular approach is a very good method of construction for schools as it limits the disruption to learning because of the speed of assembly. The building will be easy to expand and the design is sufficiently flexible to meet the changing needs of our students and curriculum development.-Julie Reilly, Head Teacher and Sixth Form centre.) 4.3 Case Study-Emergency Assessment Unit, University Hospital of North Tees. In this case study we are looking at the new revolutionary building which was designed to fulfil the needs of Interserve Project Services/North Tees and Hartlepool NHS Foundation Trust. The building will be located at the University Hospital of North Tees. The purpose-designed and built Emergency Assessment Unit has been required in order to reduce waiting times for much demanded emergency treatment. This is something the Government has planned as to drive down waiting times for patients. The amount of beds are needed to be increased at the Stockton site as well as the site needing to be able to provide a service to those needing emergency surgical care, based centrally on location rather than some distance away. The unit has promised to feature up-to-date emergency care and include specialist staff who can deal quickly and efficiently with a high number of patients thus increasing patient turnover. The solution to these needs was met through a  £2.8m Procure 21 project which was awarded to Yorkon manufacturers, based in York, by Interserve Project Services. Off-site construction and the installing of a 42-bed Emergency Assessment Unit was the aim for the new building as its production. The building included 42 steel-framed modules manufactured off-site at York and installed on-site in as little as a few days. Disruption was therefore limited and patients could rest unaware of any commotion. The 1,710m square single storey extension to the pre-existing department was astonishingly and impressively erected in just over six months from beginning to end. The building also can boast a full range of modern well-equipped facilities for any acute medical emergencies. Features are listed as including four-bed wards, single en-suite bedrooms, an isolation ward, high-dependency beds, consulting rooms, ward managers office, waiting area, Quiet room, staff changing facilities and rest room and also an interview room. Incorporated into the design were roof lights to increase any natural light in the centre of the unit and furthermore holds latest technology equipment. The installation of workstations are readily available and can be used at a patients bedside. This building proudly boasts to be one of the first units in the country to offer an electronic information board too. Looking to the comments of professionals working within the construction of this new high-tech building, we can see the positive influence of off-site technology in providing rapid, quality solutions to much needy clients

Important similarities and differences between Judaism and Christianity

Judaism and Christianity are both monotheistic religions with a common root in that they share in descent from the patriarch Abraham. Christianity after all was founded by Jews, and even when it first had Gentile converts for a while they followed Jewish practices, such as keeping the food laws, until Peter’s vision a t the home of Cornelius ( Acts 10) They are linked by the search for the Saviour or Messiah foretold in the scriptures that both share e. g, Isaiah 35 – and known by Christians in the New Testament. Goldberg and Rayner begin their book ‘The Jewish People’ :-The history of the Jewish people begins with Abraham, the history of the Jewish religion begins with Moses. Jews take their name from the fourth son of Jacob by his wife Leah. They would have in times past called themselves Israelites. The name Jew comes from the Romans who referred to Idumea, an area south of Israel. The fundamental difference is that Christians believe that Messiah came i n Jesus of Nazareth some 2000 or so years ago, while Jews, unless they claim to be Messianic Jews, a growing group, are still waiting. Another massive difference is that one is born a Jew.As long as your mother was Jewish you are Jewish, whether or not you are in any way religious, whether or not you keep the laws of Judaism and even whether or not you believe in God. Descent is through women, because then, if a foreigner impregnated a Jewish woman, whether by consent or by rape, the child would still be part of the people of God. This applies even when the women of a family have married non Jews for several generations and worship as members of another faith. It is the religion of a race and it is very difficult for anyone to become a Jew in any other way than to be born to it.Christianity on the other hand is a religion open to anyone, but though one can be born into a Christian family and dedicated or christened soon after birth, as a young person or adult each person must decide for themselves to follow Jesus as Saviour. Christians believe in one God, but refer to God as Trinity, three in one, Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Jews prefer to think of God as one. Yet in the Old Testament there are references to God as Father ( Psalm 68 v 5 ‘A Father of the fatherless†¦. is God) and as Spirit, ( Numbers 11 v 17) and also to his sending of a Saviour.( Isaiah 42)Like Christianity Judaism has over the years divided into various groupings, orthodox, liberal and so on, but just as all Christians of whatever denomination relate back to Jesus Christ, so all Jews relate back to the patriarchs. By the time of Christ though Judaism had become a very different religion as far as its every day practice – so much so the writer Ninian Smart in ‘The World’s Religions’ differentiates them into the religion of the Israelites and Judaism. ( pages 202-203). This was a gradual evolution rather than a sudden change.When the Israelites were only a few in number they worshipped together. When they made their Exodus and spent 40 years in the wilderness they worshipped together in the tabernacle Change began at the time of the Exile, when the majority of Jews were separated from temple worship, and synagogues developed. After C. E. 70 when the Romans destroyed the Jerusalem temple and Jews fled from Israel to become part of the Diaspora, non sacrificial synagogue worship became the only type available. The period of temple worship is still looked back to as when at Passover each family makes the pledge ‘Next Year in Jerusalem’.These forced changes also meant that home worship as a family became more important. Judaism is essentially the religion of the group. Judaism has its scholars and mystics, but never took up the solitary or single sex contemplative life, such as that of Julian of Norwich or groups such as the Franciscans, that began in Christianity in the second century with the desert fathers and continues t o some extent to the present day. The position of women in both religions has been problematic and is divided upon denominational lines.In the Chambers Dictionary of Religions and Beliefs, page 271, Rosemary Goring tells us about this in some detail. She explains how Reformed Judaism has tried to redress its traditional exclusion of women from worship as in the introduction of a coming of age ceremony for girls as well as for boys. The first woman became a rabbi in the Reformed tradition in the1970s. Even Conservative Judaism took the same step in 1985, but in Orthodox synagogues women are still separated from men in worship and they are only obliged to keep the negative laws i. e.thou shalt not commit adultery, and not the positive ones at certain times. The claim is that this is a matter of difference rather than a matter of inferiority.The same claim would be made by certain Christians. There have always been women in leadership roles within the church, but, despite verses such a s Galatians 3:28, â€Å"There is no difference between Jews and Gentiles, between slaves and free men; between men and women, for you are all one in union with Christ Jesus. † actual ordination has been a long time coming and in certain denominations has either not arrived or again been minimal in its effect.Judaism is a quite legalistic religion. There are rules that cover every area of life, and Orthodox Jews in particular are meticulous in keeping such rules. Christianity on the other hand, although it too has rules, these are more concerned with morals than with such minutiae as the kind of knot that can be used on the Sabbath. Galatians 2 v 16 perhaps sums up the different attitudes to legalism. ‘’We know that a person is put right with God only through faith in Jesus Christ, never by doing what the law requires.†These are of course the words of St Paul, who in his earlier life had been most legalistic -a Hebrew of the Hebrews’ as he describes h imself in Philippians, ‘’As far as keeping the Jewish law is concerned I was a Pharisee’ ( Philippians 3 v 5). Jews consider themselves the chosen people of God. Christians consider themselves to have become, because of their faith in the Savior Christ Jesus , also children of God ‘At one time you were not God’s people’ Peter tells new converts, ‘but now you are his people; at one time you did not know God’s mercy, but now you have received his mercy.’ ( 1 Peter 2 v 10)With regard to the after life there are a range of beliefs. Christians believe that Christ has covered their sins and they will ultimately live for ever with God in heaven. Large parts of the New Testament are concerned with teaching on the subject as in I Thessalonians 4. The after life is rarely mentioned in Jewish scriptures. It concentrates more on one’s actions than one’s beliefs. Both Torah and Talmud concentrate on doing one’s duty to God in this life. The web site ‘Jewish beliefs on the afterlife ‘ says :-Succeeding at this brings reward, failing at it brings punishment. Whether rewards and punishments continue after death, or whether anything at all happens after death, is not as important. Despite this there is some teaching on the subject.. Moed Katan is cited on the same page . â€Å"This world is only like a hotel. The world to come is like a home. † In the early history of the people death is likened to a reunion with family. (Genesis 49 v 29) Jacob tells his sons ‘I am going to join my family in death.’It was important to him that he be buried close to those who had preceded him as is obvious in the careful instructions that follow. This contrasts with the fate of the wicked who are described as being cut off from their people. (see Exodus 31 v 14). There is still a belief among the most Orthodox of Jews in a sort of half life after death in a place called She’ol , a world described in Isaiah 14 v 9 and 10. This was expressed to me by a lady who said ‘As long as someone is alive who remembers me I shall be alive’. Both religions have naturally adjusted to changing situations over time.For instance on page 111 of ‘The Jewish People’ Goldberg and Rayner describe how Jewish law was adjusted to conditions in such places as Cairo and Istanbul. It began as the religion of a nomadic people, but became the religion of a minority group living among people who practiced other faiths. This, and the persecution they suffered, led to such things as the Jewish ghettos of mediaeval times, in part forced on them by the majority population, and in part by the natural inclination of people to live near those like themselves.Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire in the fourth century under the emperor Constantine. In the intervening years since its inception the church grew rapidly in fulfillment of the parable of the mustard seed recorded in Matthew ( 13 v 31 and 32). William Frend describes in ‘The Christian World’ how its organization had developed into something that rivaled the state itself with its various officials in each area, so much so that Diocletian and his court in 302 tried to face up to the significant decision as to whether Christ or the traditional gods of Rome should be considered as the guardians of that city.A Roman mosaic from 5th century Rome, shown in the Christian World , (page 39) would depict Christ emperor. Becoming a state religion had both advantages, the protection of Christians and their practices, and problems such as state interference in matters that might be considered as purely church matters. For example Henry 1st of England intervened so much in church life that he wanted to be the one to give authority to the archbishop Anselm, rather than this coming from Rome. Christianity is a missionary faith.Christians have traveled to all parts of th e world taking the good news with them and seeking to bring other people to join them in faith in Christ. Judaism sees no need for this. Judaism follows the commandment found in Exodus 20 v 4 about the forbidding of making images. This is taken to mean images of God. A modern synagogue will perhaps have stained glass windows depicting important t stories from the scriptures – the giving of the law to Moses for instance or the crossing of the Dead Sea, but because they also accept the words of Genesis 1 v 26 in which God says that he created men in his image, there are no depictions of people.This injunction does not seem to apply to photographs. Christians, believing that they are not bound by Old Testament laws frequently celebrate their faith in pictures, including images of Christ and symbolic pictures of God as Father and Spirit. Conclusion These two faiths have both parallels and common roots as well as shared scriptures and monotheism. There are also major differences i n belief and emphasis and the way that religion affects daily life. In both there are sincere believers as well as those of less than total commitment.

The Hobbit Book Report

This is a story about the adventure of a delightful little hobbit and how he found out who he was and what he really valued. At first, the little hobbit Bilbo was just a normal Baggins (a family name which stands for routineers and homebodies) who lived a peaceful life in a comfortable and quiet hobbit hole full of fine furniture, delicate ornaments and a lot of food. However, everything changed when Gandalf, an old wizard, gave him a visit and held and unexpected party in Bilbo’s hobbit hole with 13 dwarves who Bilbo had never met before. Gandalf invited Bilbo to a journey to the Lonely Mountain and to help the dwarves get back their treasure from the wicked dragon. The more Took part (Bilbo’s mom was a Took) of Bilbo’s characteristic was awaken and he, after a lot of hesitation because of being a Baggins for more than 50 years, decided to go with the dwarves. During the journey, Bilbo gave up all the things that he was used to and took granted for. Everyday, he slept on rocks and ate things like dog food; he rode on horses that was too high for him and tried his best to follow the dwarves’ pastes. At the beginning, the dwarves had many complains about bringing a hobbit with them as Bilbo always slowed down the whole group. However, clear transformations can be seen on Bilbo as time flouted. Even though he, sometimes, still missed his cute little hobbit hole and his afternoon tea, he learned to be an adventurer and to perform his duties as a member of the group. He saved the whole team by shouting to Gandalf and he even escaped from the Goblins by himself. He won the respect from the dwarves and finally fixed in. No one is unchangeable and that’s why we keep on trying new things. During this process of trying, we discover new interests, new goals and new capabilities. In this case, Bilbo transformed from a domestic little hobbit into a clever burglar and a resourceful companion. He found out that what he really valued was friendship, adventures and braveness but not an unchangeable life. Sometimes, we think we are satisfied with what we have right now because all the people around us all live identical lives. Whenever changes occur, we’ll start I believe that in somewhere deep inside us, we all crave for adventures, different lives and a brand new world.

Reading Notes on Robert Frost’s Poem “Nothing Gold Can Stay”

Reading Notes on Robert Frost’s Poem â€Å"Nothing Gold Can Stay† Robert Frost wrote a number of long narrative poems like â€Å"The Death of the Hired Man,† and most of his best-known poems are medium-length, like his sonnets â€Å"Mowing† and â€Å"Acquainted with the Night,† or his two most famous poems, both written in four stanzas, â€Å"The Road Not Taken† and â€Å"Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening.† But some of his most beloved poems are famously brief lyrics- like â€Å"Nothing Gold Can Stay,† which is condensed into only eight lines of three beats each (iambic trimeter), four little rhyming couplets containing the whole cycle of life, an entire philosophy. Double Entendreâ€Å"Nothing Gold Can Stay† achieves its perfect brevity by making every word count, with a richness of meanings. At first, you think it’s a simple poem about the natural life cycle of a tree: â€Å"Nature’s first green is gold,Her hardest hue to hold.† But the very mention of â€Å"gold† expands beyond the forest to human commerce, to the symbolism of wealth and the philosophy of value. Then the second couplet seems to return to a more conventional poetic statement about the transience of life and beauty: â€Å"Her early leaf’s a flower;But only so an hour.† But immediately after that, we realize that Frost is playing with the multiple meanings of these simple, mostly single syllable words- else why would he repeat â€Å"leaf† like he’s ringing a bell? â€Å"Leaf† echoes with its many meanings- leaves of paper, leafing through a book, the color leaf green, leafing out as an action, as budding forth, time passing as the pages of the calendar turn... â€Å"Then leaf subsides to leaf.† From Naturalist to PhilosopherAs the Friends of Robert Frost at the Robert Frost Stone House Museum in Vermont point out, the description of colors in the first lines of this poem is a literal depiction of the spring budding of willow and maple trees, whose leaf buds appear very briefly as golden-colored before they mature to the green of actual leaves. Yet in the sixth line, Frost makes it explicit that his poem carries the double meaning of allegory: â€Å"So Eden sank to grief,So dawn goes down to day.† He is retelling the history of the world here, how the first sparkle of any new life, the first blush of the birth of mankind, the first golden light of any new day always fades, subsidies, sinks, goes down. â€Å"Nothing gold can stay.† Frost has been describing spring, but by speaking of Eden he brings fall, and the fall of man, to mind without even using the word. That’s why we chose to include this poem in our seasonal collection of poems for autumn rather than spring.